The distribution and numbers of free-ranging cheetahs have decreased substantially during the past decades. They once occurred widely across Africa and southwestern Asia, however, their current distribution shrunk to a small fraction of their previous range. The main reasons for this decline are human-wildlife conflicts, prey decline and habitat loss and fragmentation. Nevertheless, most cheetahs occur outside of protected areas, where they typically do not need to compete with larger carnivores such as lions and spotted hyenas. Also, cheetahs have larges home ranges, thus many protected areas cannot offer space for large cheetah populations.

Together with several collaborators we estimated that the worldwide range of free-ranging cheetahs has reduced to 9% of its previous range and that there are currently approximately 7,000 free-ranging cheetahs living in Africa. Of those, the largest populations occur in Namibia and Botswana, with the majority roaming on privately owned farmland. On farmland, cheetahs come into regular conflict with livestock farmers, because they sometimes prey on livestock. See also our sub-projects “Diet determination and composition in free-ranging cheetahs” and “Stakeholver involvement and solution to the farmer-cheetah conflict”.

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To understand the movements of cheetahs and thus the conflict with farmers, we captured over the past 20 years more than 400 adult cheetahs in central Namibia, immobilized them and fitted them with VHF or GPS collars. We detected that cheetahs on farmland have the same unique socio-spatial organization as the cheetahs in the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, East Africa.

In Namibia, males have two spatial tactics with some males defending small territories of ~380 km2, whereas other males (floaters) roaming in large stable home ranges of ~1,600 km2, encompassing several territories. The territories are distributed in a regular pattern across the landscape, not contiguous with each other but separated by a surrounding matrix. Females use home ranges of ~650 km2 located mainly in this matrix. The core areas of the territories contain several marking sites, often large trees, which function as communication hubs (CHs) for all cheetahs. Floaters aim to take over a territory at some point of their career which entails heavy or deadly fights. If they were successful, they change within a few months their body shape and gain muscle mass, thus increase their body mass index. Owning a territory most likely gives males preferred access to females.

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For our research, we also use camera traps. They are important to observe the behavior of cheetahs at the CHs, but also to determine densities of cheetahs on a large scale. For the latter, we tested several spatial models to identify the best ones to handle appropriately the unusual socio-spatial organization of cheetahs. Heterogeneity mixture models accounted best for the heterogeneous detection probability of territorial and floater males. We also use camera traps in the various biomes in Namibia to determine cheetah densities in different habitats and land use areas. This work is done in collaboration with the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT) of Namibia and has the goal to provide a reliable cheetah population estimate for the country (for details see sub-project “Camera trapping and density estimation”).

Publications reporting on these topics

  • Wachter B, Portas R, Melzheimer J (2023): The introduction of African cheetahs to India was planned without considering their spatial ecology. Conservation Science and Practice 2023;e12943. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.12943
  • Tucker MA, Schipper AM, Adams TSF, Attias N, Avgar T, Babic NL, Barker KJ, Bastille-Rousseau G, Behr DM, Belant JL, Beyer DE, Blaum N, Blount JD, Bockmühl D, Pires Boulhosa RL, Brown MB, Buuveibaatar B, Cagnacci F, Calabrese JM, Černe R, Chamaillé-Jammes S, Chan AN, Chase MJ, Chaval Y, Chenaux-Ibrahim Y, Cherry SG, Ćirović D, Çoban E, Cole EK, Conlee L, Courtemanch A, Cozzi G, Davidson SC, DeBloois D, Dejid N, DeNicola V, Desbiez ALJ, Douglas-Hamilton I, Drake D, Egan M, Eikelboom JAJ, Fagan WF, Farmer MJ, Fennessy J, Finnegan SP, Fleming CH, Fournier B, Fowler NL, Gantchoff MG, Garnier A, Gehr B, Geremia C, Goheen JR, Hauptfleisch ML, Hebblewhite M, Heim M, Hertel AG, Heurich M, Hewison AJM, Hodson J, Hoffman N, Hopcraft G, Huber D, Isaac EJ, Janik K, Ježek M, Johansson Ö, Jordan NR, Kaczensky P, Kamaru D, Kauffman MJ, Kautz TM, Kays R, Kelly AP, Kindberg J, Krofel M, Kusak J, Lamb CT, LaSharr TN, Leimgruber P, Leitner H, Lierz M, Linnell JDC, Lkhagvaja P, Long RA, López-Bao JV, Loretto MC, Marchand P, Martin H, Martinez LA, McBride RT, McLaren AAD, Meisingset E, Melzheimer J, Merrill EH, Middleton AD, Monteith KL, Moore SA, Van Moorter B, Morellet N, Morrison T, Müller R, Mysterud A, Noonan NJ, O'Connor D, Olson D, Olson KA, Ortega AC, Ossi F, Panzacchi M, Patchett R, Patterson BR, Cunha de Paula R, Payne J, Peters W, Petroelje TR, Pitcher BJ, Pokorny B, Poole K, Potočnik H, Poulin MP, Pringle RM, Prins HHT, Ranc N, Reljić S, Robb B, Röder R, Rolandsen CM, Rutz C, Salemgareyev AR, Samelius G, Sayine-Crawford H, Schooler S, Şekercioğlu CH, Selva N, Semenzato P, Sergiel A, Sharma K, Shawler AL, Signer J, Silovský V, Silva JP, Simon R, Smiley RA, Smith DW, Solberg EJ, Ellis-Soto D, Spiegel O, Stabach J, Stacy-Dawes J, Stahler DR, Stephenson J, Stewart C, Strand O, Sunde P, Svoboda NJ, Swart J, Thompson JJ, Toal KL, Uiseb K, VanAcker MC, Velilla M, Verzuh TL, Wachter B, Wagler BL, Whittington J, Wikelski M, Wilmers CC, Wittemyer G, Young JK, Zięba F, Zwijacz-Kozica T, Huijbregts MAJ, Mueller T (2023): Behavioral responses of terrestrial mammals to COVID-19 lockdowns. Science 380: 1059-1064. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abo6499
  • Parker DM, Nams VO, Balme GA, Begg C, Begg K, Bidner L, Bockmuehl D, Cozzi G, du Preez B, Fattebert J, Golabek K, Grant T, Hayward MW, Houser A-M, Hunter LTB, Isbell LA, Jenny D, Loveridge AJ, Macdonald DW, Mann GKH, Maputla N, Marker L, Martins QE, Maruping-Mzileni N, Melzheimer J, Menges V, Nyoni P, O’Brien J, Owen C, Parker T, Pitman R, Power RJ, Slotow R, Stein A, Steyn V, Stratford K, Swanepoel LH, Vanak A, Van Vuuren R, Wachter B, Weise F, Wilmers CC (2023): The implications of large home range size in a solitary felid, the Leopard (Panthera pardus). Journal of Mammalogy XX, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyad074
  • Melzheimer J, Weise F, Schmidt-Kuentzel A, Marker L, Nghikembua M, Fleury G, Wachter B, Portas R (2022): A conservation assessment of Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. In: NCE, LCMAN, MEFT (eds) 2022. Conservation Status and Red List of the Terrestrial Carnivores of Namibia. Pp 14-22. MEFT, LCMAN & NCE, Windhoek, Namibia. ISBN: 9789994501670.
  • Klein K, Jaeger S, Melzheimer J, Wachter B, Hofer H, Baltabayev A, Schreiber F (2021): Visual analytics for sensor movement data for cheetah behaviour analysis. Journal of Visualization. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12650-021-00742-6
  • Giese L, Melzheimer J, Bockmühl D, Wasiolka B, Rast W, Berger A, Wachter B (2021): Using machine learning from remote behavior classification – verifying acceleration data to infer feeding events in free-ranging cheetahs. Sensors 21:5426. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165426
  • Melzheimer J, Heinrich SK, Wasiolka B, Mueller R, Thalwitzer S, Palmegiani I, Weigold A, Portas R, Roeder R, Krofel M, Hofer H, Wachter B (2020): Communication hubs of an asocial cat are the source of a human-carnivore conflict and key to its solution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2002487117 
  • Wachter B, Schulze S, Lonzer J, Berger A, Melzheimer J, East ML, Selbert S, Hofer H 2006. The use of data from VHF and GPS radio-collared cheetahs to decrease conflicts between cheetahs and farmers in Namibia. Proceedings of the 26th European Telemetry Conference, 556-567. 
  • Durant SM, Mitchell N, Groom R, Pettorelli N, Ipavec A, Jacobson AP, Woodroffe R, Böhm M, Hunter LT, Becker MS, Broekhuis F, Bashir S, Andresen L, Aschenborn O, Beddiaf M, Belbachir F, Belbachir-Bazi A, Berbash A, Brandao de Matos Machado I, Breitenmoser C, Chege M, Cilliers D, Davies-Mostert H, Dickman AJ, Ezekiel F, Farhadinia MS, Funston P, Henschel P, Horgan J, de Iongh HH, Jowkar H, Klein R, Lindsey PA, Marker L, Marnewick K, Melzheimer J, Merkle J, M’soka J, Msuha M, O’Neill H, Parker M, Purchase G, Sahailou S, Saidu Y, Samna A, Schmidt-Küntzel A, Selebatso E, Sogbohossou EA, Soultan A, Stone E, van der Meer E, van Vuuren R, Wykstra M, Young-Overton K 2017: The global decline of cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and what it means for conservation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the USA 114, 528-533. Doi: 10.1073/ pnas.1611122114.
  • Weise FJ, Vijay V, Jacobson AP, Schoonover RF, Groom RJ, Horgan J, Keeping D, Klein R, Marnewick K, Maude G, Melzheimer J, Mills G, van der Merwe V, van der Meer E, van Vuuren RJ, Wachter B, Pimm SL 2017: The distribution and numbers of cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in southern Africa. PeerJ 5:e4096. Doi: 10.7717/peerj.4096.
  • Edwards S, Fischer M, Wachter B, Melzheimer J 2018: Coping with intrasexual behavioural differences: Capture-recapture abundance estimation of male cheetah. Ecology and Evolution 8:9171-9180. Doi: 10.1002/ece3.4410.
  • Marker L, Cristescu B, Dickman A, Nghikembua MT, Boast LK, Morrison T, Melzheimer J, Fabiano E, Mills G, Wachter B, Macdonald DW 2018: Ecology of free-ranging cheetahs. In: Cheetahs: Biology and conservation. Marker L, Boast L, Schmidt-Küntzel A (eds), Academic Press, San Diego, USA. 107-119. Doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-804088-1.00008-3.
  • Marker L, Cristescu B, Morrison T, Flyman MV, Horgan J, Sogbohossou EA, Bissett C, van der Merwe V, de Matos Machado IB, Fabiano E, van der Meer E, Aschenborn O, Melzheimer J, Young-Overton K, FarhadiniaMS, Wykstra M, Chege M, Samna A, Amir OG, Mohanun Ash, Paulos OD, Nhabanga AR, M’soka JLJ, Belbachir F, Ashenafi ZT, Nghikembua MT (2018): Cheetah rangewide status and distribution. In: Cheetahs: Biology and conservation. Marker L, Boast L, Schmidt-Küntzel A (eds), Academic Press, San Diego, USA. 33-54. Doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-804088-1.00004-6.
  • Marker L, Schmidt-Küntzel A, Portas R, Dickman A, Good K, Hartmann A, Cristescu B, Melzheimer J (2018): Capture, care, collaring, and collection of biomedical samples in free-ranging cheetahs. In: Cheetahs: Biology and conservation. Marker L, Boast L, Schmidt-Küntzel A (eds), Academic Press, San Diego, USA. 457-469. Doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-804088-1.00034-4.
  • Melzheimer J, Streif S, Wasiolka B, Fischer M, Thalwitzer S, Heinrich SK, Weigold A, Hofer H, Wachter B 2018: Queuing, take-overs, and becoming a fat cat: Long-term data reveal two distinct male spatial tactics at different life-history stages in Namibian cheetahs. Ecosphere 9(6): e02308. Doi: 10.1002/ecs2.2308.
  • Wachter B, Broekhuis F, Melzheimer J, Horgan J, Chelysheva EV, Marker L, Mills G, Caro T 2018: Behaviour and communication of free-ranging cheetahs. In: Cheetahs: Biology and conservation. Marker L, Boast L, Schmidt-Küntzel A (eds), Academic Press, San Diego, USA. 121-134. Doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-804088-1.00009-5.
  • Portas R, Wachter B, Melzheimer J 2018: Namibian Cheetah Survey 2015-2017. Final report. Ministry of Environment and Tourism of the Republic of Namibia. Windhoek. 72 pages.
  • Hofman MPG, Hayward MW, Heim M, Marchand P, Rolandsen C, Mattisson J, Urbano F, Heurich M, Mysterud A, Melzheimer J, Morellet N, Voigt U, Allen BL, Gehr B, Rouco C, Ullmann W, Holland Ø, Jorgensen N, Steinheim G, Cagnacci F, Kröschel M, Kaczensky P, Buveibaatar B, Payne JC, Palmegiani I, Jerina K, Kjellander P, Johansson Ö, LaPoint S, Bayrakçismith R, Linnell J, Zaccaroni M, Jorge MLSP, Oshima JEF, Songhurst A, Fischer C, Mc Bride RT, Thompson JT, Streif S, Sandfort R, Bonenfant C, Drouilly M, Klapproth M, Zinner D, Yarnell R, Stronza A, Willmott L, Meisingset E, Thaker M, Vanak AT, Nicoloso S, Gräber R, Saïd S, Boudreau MT, Devlin A, Hoogesteijn R, May-Junior JA, Nifong JC, Odden J, Quigley H, Tortato FR, Parker DM, Caso A, Perrine J, Tellaeche C, Zieba F, Zwijacz- Kozica T, Appel C, Axsom I, Bean WT, Cristescu B, Périquet S, Teichman KJ, Karpanty S, Licoppe A, Menges V, Black K, Scheppers T, Schai-Braun SC, de Azevedo FC, Lemos FG, Payne A, Swanepoel LH, Weckworth BV, Berger A, Bertassoni A, McCulloch G, Šustr P, Athreya V, Bockmuehl D, Caesar J, Ekori A, Melovski D, Richard-Hansen C, Van De Vyver D, Reyna-Hurtado R, Robardet E, Selva N, Sergiel A, Farhadinia M, Sunde P, Portas R, Ambarli H, Berzins R, Kappeler PM, Mann GK, Pyritz L, Bisset C, Grant T, Steinmetz R, Swedell L, Welch RJ, Armenteras D, Bidder OR, González TM, Rosenblatt A, Kacjel S, Balkenhol N 2019: Right on track? Performance of satellite telemetry in terrestrial wildlife research. PLoS ONE 14(5): e0216223. Doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0216223.
  • Klein K, Jaeger S, Melzheimer J, Wachter B, Hofer H, Baltabayev A, Schreiber F (2019): Visual analytics for cheetah behaviour analysis. Proceedings of VINCI ’19:The 12th International Symposium on Visual Information Communication and Interaction (VINCI 2019), Shanghai, China, September 20–22, 2019 (VINCI ’19), 8 pages. Doi: 10.1145/1122445.1122456.
  • Melzheimer J, Wachter B (2019): Want to do fieldwork in the 21st century? Pack your high-tech equipment to generate big data! Conservation and the Environment in Namibia 2019, 58-61.